TEACHERS'  HANDBOOK 

OF 

>SYCHOLOGICAL  PRINCIPLE! 

WENZLAPP 


NEW  YORK 

CHARLES  E.  MERRILL  COMPANY 


TEACHERS'  HANDBOOK 

OF 

PSYCHOLOGICAL  PRINCIPLES 


TO  ACCOMPANY  "  THE  MENTAL  MAN  " 


BY 

GUSTAV  GOTTLIEB  WENZLAFF,  M.  A 

PRESIDENT  OF  THE  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 
SPRINGFIELD,  SOUTH  DAKOTA 


NEW  YORK 
CHARLES  E.  MERRILL  CO. 


PREFACE 

The  author  of  this  handbook  thoroughly  believes  in  the  use- 
fulness of  general  scientific  psychology.  To  be  useful  to  the 
teacher,  the  study  does  not  need  to  be  especially  prepared  for 
him  and  set  before  him  as  a  "  predigested "  food.  The  teacher's 
work  is  with  the  pupil,  and  in  order  that  it  may  be  scientific,  the 
pupil's  mind — not  a  portion  of  it,  but  all  of  it — must  be  under- 
stood by  the  teacher.  Hence  there  is  really  no  more  need  of  a 
teacher's  psychology  than  a  poet's  or  a  physician's  psychology. 
What  a  teacher  needs  is  just  psychology. 

To  make  application  of  the  principles  of  psychology,  however, 
to  the  work  of  the  teacher  is  no  easy  matter;  to  do  so  requires 
considerable  thought  and  skill.  To  assist  the  teacher  in  this 
task  by  way  of  suggestion,  the  following  pages  have  been  pre- 
pared. They  point  out  some  of  the  facts  and  principles  appli- 
cable in  teaching  based  upon  the  corresponding  chapters  in  The 
Mental  Man.  In  no  way  is  this  handbook  intended  to  take  the 
place  of  psychology. 

Inasmuch  as  the  mind  in  education  is  both  an  end  to  be  de- 
veloped and  a  means  by  which  the  end  is  attained,  the  point  of 
view  in  this  syllabus-  fluctuates  between  these  two.  Brief  as  the 
treatment  is,  it  fijiyfld  demonstrate  ihe  double  value  of  the 
psychological ^cience  rto  the.  .t.eacher. 

A::«ft£;v  '!:..:/•  .  G.  G.  w. 

June,  1910 


COPYRIGHT,  1910,    BY  CHAKLES  E.  MERRILL  Co. 


f  €•  C ' 


TEACHERS'  HANDBOOK  OF 

PSYCHOLOGICAL  PRINCIPLES 


The  chief  work  of  the  teacher  is  to  assist  the  develop- 
ment of  the  mind.  Since  psychology  is  the  science  of 
mind,  it  is  important  that  every  teacher  be  familiar  with 
it.  Evidently  if  the  teacher  is  to  be  a  factor  in  the 
development  of  the  pupil's  mind,  he  must  know  con- 
siderable of  its  nature,  tendencies,  and  possibilities. 
Even  of  the  engineer  that  drives  the  locomotive  it  is 
required  that  he  understand  thoroughly  every  part  of 
the  mechanism.  The  teacher  that  is  entirely  ignorant 
of  the  mind  and  its  workings — were  such  a  thing  possible 
—would  be  utterly  unsuited  for  his  calling.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  more  he  understands  of  the  mind  from 
childhood  up,  the  more  intelligently  adapted  may  the 
instruction  be.  As  the  wise  of  old  pointed  out  the  neces- 
sity of  knowing  self,  so  modern  pedagogy  may  lay  down 
as  the  wisest  maxim  for  the  teacher:  Know  your  pupil. 

Yet  no  teacher  should  imagine  that  all  the  facts  of 
psychology  can  be  found  in  books  and  then  be  memo- 
rized and  applied  in  teaching,  as  the  tailor  applies  his 
yardstick  when  making  a  garment.  This  is  far  from 
being  the  case.  The  psychology  exhaustive  and  com- 
plete in  every  direction  has  not  yet  been  written  and, 
furthermore,  will  never  be  written,  so  innumerable  and 

3 


4    /:s,j   .TEACHERS^  HANDBOOK  OF 

varied  are  the  mental  facts  and  phenomena.  All  that 
any  psychology  can  do  is  to  point  out  some  principles 
pertinent  to  the  teacher  and  to  put  him  on  the  psycho- 
logical highway. 

The  important  thing  is  to  be  imbued  with  the  psycho- 
logical, scientific  spirit  that  will  lead  its  possessor  to  re- 
gard all  mental  phenomena  in  the  light  of  law.  He  who 
has  this  spirit  or  has  acquired  this  habit  of  psychologiz- 
ing possesses,  so  to  speak,  an  inexhaustible  thesaurus  of 
psychological  knowledge,  or  what  is  better,  he  has  a 
psychological  insight.  A  teacher  without  insight  into 
the  mind  of  the  pupil  is  a  comparative  failure.  It  is, 
therefore,  of  prime  importance  to  acquire  this  habit  of 
psychologizing. 

This  habit  can  be  acquired  by  studying  the  psycholog- 
ical researches  and  conclusions  reached  by  others,  and 
by  making  observations.  Every  teacher  can  take  note 
of  his  own  inner  self  through  introspection.  He  can  re- 
fresh his  memory  of  his  mental  experiences  from  child- 
hood up.  He  can  carefully  note  the  powers  and  feelings 
and  ideas  of  the  child,  the  adolescent,  and  the  mature 
person.  He  can  read  the  best  psychological  literature 
available.  Reading  and  original  observation  and  ex- 
perimentation should  supplement  each  other. 

The  following  are  a  few  of  the  books  on  the  subject 
profitable  to  read.  The  teacher  who  has  read  these 
works  carefully  and  with  understanding  may  regard 
himself  as  fairly  well  oriented  in  the  science: 

James'  Principles  of  Psychology  (Holt). 

Witmer's  Analytical  Psychology  (Ginn). 

King's  Psychology  of  Child  Development  (Univ.  of  Chicago  Press). 

Hall's  Youth  (Appleton). 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  PRINCIPLES  5 

II 

The  mind  being  in  its  activities  dependent  on  the 
body,  notably  the  nervous  system,  it  is  clear  how  care- 
fully the  teacher  should  watch  the  physical  well-being 
of  the  pupil  for  the  sake  of  the  best  and  most  vigorous 
mentality,  if  not  for  the  sake  of  the  physical  health  itself. 

In  general  it  may  be  stated  that  anything  that  makes 
for  better  health  also  furthers  the  mental  activities. 
Therefore  teachers  should  be  familiar  with  the  laws  of 
health  and  school  hygiene. 

In  these  days  much  is  being  said  of  the  evil  effects 
of  adenoids,  hypertrophied  tonsils,  defects  in  vision 
and  hearing,  disease,  improper  or  insufficient  food  and 
clothing,  improper  posture,  vitiated  air,  shallow  breath- 
ing, and  insufficient  outdoor  exercise  and  play.  No 
teacher  can  afford  to  be  indifferent  to  such  topics  as 
these.  Although  a  teacher  cannot  know  everything, 
much  less  do  all  that  there  is  opportunity  for  doing,  yet 
he  can  see  to  it  that  the  schoolroom  be  well  ventilated, 
lighted,  and  heated  throughout  the  day;  he  can  see  to  it 
that  the  pupils  in  his  charge  stand  and  sit  and  breathe 
properly;  he  can  also  notify  parents  of  any  noticeable 
mouth-breathing  and  call  their  attention  to  the  injury 
to  the  mind  of  the  child.  In  various  other  ways,  too, 
the  teacher  can  make  his  influence  felt  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  body  and  mind  of  the  children  in  his  charge. 

Since  mental  states,  their  kind  and  vigor,  depend  on 
the  nervous  organization,  especially  the  brain-centers,  it 
is  apparent  that  education  cannot  materially  change  the 
initial  endowments.  The  teacher  may  expect  the  given 
powers  to  be  developed  or  improved,  but  not  altered. 


6  TEACHERS'  HANDBOOK  OF 

What  nature  has  not  provided  in  a  pupil,  cannot  be 
put  into  him,  no  matter  how  anxious  the  effort.  Were 
we  able  to  determine  with  absolute  accuracy  the  various 
brain-centers  and  their  significance  in  the  child,  then  it 
would  also  be  possible  therefrom  to  calculate  and  predict 
the  individual's  future  mental  character. 

The  teacher  should  continually  bear  in  mind  that  as 
there  are  visible  physical  differences  in  individuals,  so 
there  are  differences  in  the  brain-centers.  This  means 
differences  in  mental  qualities  and  powers.  No  two 
children  can  be  expected  to  react  in  precisely  the  same 
manner.  Sometimes  the  congenital  endowments  are 
so  diverse,  that  almost  from  the  beginning  different 
instruction  would  be  profitable.  It  is  futile  to  at- 
tempt to  put  all  children  through  the  same  process 
and  training.  Even  though  school-boards  -and  the 
public  generally  demand  uniform  instruction,  the  re- 
sults in  pupils  of  different  endowment  are  often  quite 
diverse. 

In  this  connection  the  following  suggestions  should  be 
remembered. 

If  a  pupil  shows  any  decided  bent  of  mind,  that 
inclination  should  not  be  repressed  unless  evil,  but 
encouraged  and  developed.  Any  mental  defect  in  him, 
on  the  other  hand,  should  not  be  treated  with  impa- 
tience or  ridicule. 

Exceptionally  bright  pupils  should  not  be  kept  back, 
but  advanced  as  fast  as  their  mental  development  and 
physical  well-being  permit.  Some  brightness  is  due  to 
excessive  neurosis,  or  nervousness,  and  therefore  should 
not  be  encouraged,  but  repressed  by  occupying  the  child 
with  outdoor  physical  activities. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  PRINCIPLES  7 

Subnormal  or  exceptionally  dull  pupils  should  not  be 
kept  in  the  same  class  with  normal  children.  The  in- 
struction must  be  suited  to  their  powers  and  needs. 
This  may  be  done  successfully  in  auxiliary  schools 
established  for  just  this  class  of  pupils. 

Work  in  the  school  should  at  all  times  be  adapted  to 
the  physical  strength  of  the  pupil.  And  there  is  great 
variation  in  this.  Strength  and  endurance  come  with 
age.  Never  should  a  child  be  worked  after  fatigue  has 
set  in.  This  would  defeat  its  own  end.  For  a  teacher  to 
think  that  the  getting  of  a  lesson  is  of  greater  moment 
than  the  mental  and  physical  development  and  wel- 
fare .of  the  pupil,  shows  culpable  misapprehension.  A 
child's  mental  welfare  is  never  furthered  by  an  abuse 
of  the  laws  of  health. 

Before  maturity  four  periods  have  been  distinctly 
noted. 

1.  The   period   of  early  childhood  begins   about  the 
third  year  and  extends  to  the  sixth  or  seventh.    During 
this  time  the  child's  body  needs  most  attention.    It  is  a 
time  of  rapid  growth  of  the  brain.    The  language  develop- 
ment is  rapid;  therefore  it  is  important  that  the  child 
should  hear  his  mother  tongue  spoken  well.     Formal 
instruction  should  be  at  a  minimum  and  be  of  the 
kindergarten    kind.      The    child's    activity    should    be 
spontaneous,  for  the  most  part;  that  is,  it  should  be 
largely  play.    Obedience  should  be  insisted  upon. 

2.  The  period 'of  second  dentition,  at  the  age  of  seven 
or  eight,  is  a  period  of  transition.     Characteristics  are 
loss  of  the  first  teeth  and  coming  of  the  second  set;  and 
the  brain  now  reaches  nearly  its  full  weight.     During 
this  time  all  work  and  strain  should  be  reduced,  owing 


8  TEACHERS'  HANDBOOK  OF 

to  the  mental  and  physical  lassitude,  nervousness,  and 
weaker  heart  that  characterize  this  period.  Fatigue 
comes  more  easily.  Visual  disorders  are  common.  The 
blood  is  frequently  impoverished. 

3.  The  third  period  has  been  called  the  drill  period. 
It  begins  at  eight  or  nine  and  continues  for  about  four 
years.    It  is  marked  by  great  increase  of  vitality,  activity, 
and  endurance.     Reason  barely  begins  to  be  active. 
This  period  should  be  devoted  to  forming  habits  and 
acquiring  fundamental  knowledge  through  drill.    Moral 
ideals  may  be  inculcated  by  means  of  the  story. 

4.  The  period  of  youth  begins  about  the  twelfth  or 
thirteenth  year  and  closes  at  maturity.     At  about  the 
beginning  of  this  period  the  pupil  is  especially  susceptible 
to  religious  and  ethical  ideals.     When  later  the  reason- 
ing powers  become  thoroughly  awakened,  there  comes 
a  period  of  doubt  of  transmitted  beliefs.     Youth,  on 
the  whole,  is  a  time  when  ideals  are  formed  and  dreams 
are  dreamed  of  a  glorious  future. 

The  matter  of  proper  care  of  the  physical  condition 
for  the  sake  of  the  mental,  is  receiving  much  attention 
these  days.  No  teacher  should  regard  himself  well 
informed  and  up  to  the  higher  standard  who  has  not 
given  attention  to  these  various  subjects  and  problems. 

We  recommend  that  the  teacher  consult  special 
treatises  concerning  this  subject.  The  following  books 
may  be  found  helpful : 

Allen's  Civics  and  Health  (Ginn),  especially  Chapters  V-XV. 
Mclsaac's  The  Elements  of  Hygiene  for  Schools  (Macmillan) . 
Maennel's  Auxiliary  Education  (Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.). 
MacDonald's  Man  and  Abnormal  Man  (Government  Printing 
Office). 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  PRINCIPLES  9 

Bryan's  Basis  of  Practical  Teaching   (Silver,   Burdett  &   Co.), 

Chapters  XIV-XVI. 
Swift's  Mind  in  the  Making  (Scribners),  Chapters  IV  and  V. 


Ill 

Infant  consciousness  is  quite  indefinite  in  character, 
but  by  a  force  of  its  own,  it  is  able  to  narrow  itself  down 
to  the  definite.  This  force,  the  directive  power  of 
consciousness,  thus  employed  is  attention.  To  attend 
and  to  be  conscious  of  something,  although  expressing 
two  different  ideas,  are  virtually  the  same  thing.  To 
attend  without  consciousness,  or  to  be  conscious  of 
something  without  attention,  is  impossible.  Thus  it 
happens  that  the  development  of  consciousness  and  of 
the  power  to  attend  are  simultaneous,  or  parallel. 

Attention  is  of  two  varieties:  involuntary  and  volun- 
tary. 

Involuntary  attention  occurs  spontaneously  and 
without  effort.  Let  us  suppose  that  a  bird  flies  into  the 
schoolroom.  The  pupils  and  the  teacher,  too,  cannot 
help  noting  this. 

Such  being  the  nature  of  involuntary  attention,  it 
of  course  follows  that  it  is  unpedagogical  for  a  teacher 
to  find  fault  with  pupils  for  attending  to  things  that  it  is 
natural  for  normally  constituted  children  to  notice. 
Rather  than  attempt  to  change  the  child,  the  teacher 
should  endeavor  to  secure  external  conditions  favorable 
to  the  least  distraction.  It  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible, 
for  a  teacher  to  command  attention.  The  teacher  can 
get  the  attention  of  the  pupils  by  certain  means  adapted 
to  the  young. 


10  TEACHERS'  HANDBOOK  OF 

By  the  time  the  child  is  ready  for  school,  his  states 
of  consciousness  are  more  or  less  definite  and  sustained. 
School-work  tends  to  improve  consciousness  by  making 
definite  demands  upon  it.  Constantly  the  teacher 
endeavors  to  secure  the  child's  attention  so  that  the  latter 
may  hear  the  instructions  and  follow  out  the  work 
assigned.  In  other  words,  one  of  the  great  aims  of  the 
teacher  is  so  to  train  the  child  that  he  may  be  capable 
of  sustained,  voluntary  attention. 

A  knowledge  of  the  fluctuations  of  consciousness 
will  prove  useful  to  the  teacher.  If,  for  example,  the 
teacher  announces  a  list  of  words  for  the  pupils  to  write, 
cautioning  them  that  each  word  is  to  be  pronounced 
but  once,  now  and  then  a  word  will  not  be  heard  by  all, 
in  spite  of  their  good  intentions.  Although  it  is  good 
pedagogy  to  stimulate  strict  attention  in  the  pupils,  it  is 
equally  good  pedagogy  to  make  allowance  for  these  fluctu- 
ations of  primal  attention  over  which  we  have  no  control. 

Another  fact  to  be  remembered  by  teachers  is  that  the 
mind,  especially  that  of  a  child,  is  not  clearly  and  com- 
pletely conscious  of  itself.  Children  often  do  things 
without  being  able  to  explain  why  they  do  them.  No 
teacher,  therefore,  should  insist  on  getting  an  explana- 
tion from  the  child  in  every  instance.  The  child  may 
in  his  impotence  assign  motives  that  are  anything  but 
the  correct  ones. 

Likewise  it  is  highly  unpsychological  for  the  teacher 
to  frown  on  the  pupil  who  may  honestly  feel  impelled 
to  say  that  he  "  knows  but  can't  tell."  Of  course  "  knowl- 
edge" that  cannot  be  recalled  at  the  moment  it  is  called 
for,  has  little  schoolroom  value;  nevertheless  in  the 
development  of  the  child  it  may  mean  much.  The  pupil 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  PRINCIPLES  11 

making  the  best  recitations  is  not  always  the  pupil  of 
depth  of  mind  and  character.  In  fact  it  is  commonly 
remarked  that  the  valedictorians  are  soon  lost  sight  of 
in  the  world's  activities.  The  men  of  power  and  insight, 
as  well  as  scholarship,  were  frequently  the  boys  of  no 
brilliancy  in  school.  Yet  they  were  receptive  of  impres- 
sions, and  these  impressions  were  available  sooner  or 
later  in  some  form. 

LITERATURE 

Bagley's  Classroom  Management  (Macmillan) ,  Chapters  IX-XII, 
"The  Problem  of  Attention." 


IV 

The  directive  power  of  consciousness,  of  which  atten- 
tion is  a  form,  is  a  subject  of  great  significance  to  the 
teacher.  It  is  a  fundamental  principle  of  pedagogy 
that  the  child  is  not  a  passive  vessel  into  which  knowl- 
edge is  to  be  poured,  but  that  instruction  should  arouse 
self-activity  in  the  pupil.  For  practical  purposes,  it 
resolves  itself  into  two  questions:. 

1.  How  may  the  will  be  moved  to  act? 

2.  What  develops  the  will? 

Evidently,  if  the  teacher  is  to  be  of  service  in  the 
education  of  the  child,  he  must  be  able  to  enter  some- 
what into  the  child's  inner  life;  he  must  know  the  motives 
that  impel  the  will  to  act  in  pupils  of  a  given  age.  It  is 
well  known  that  as  the  child  grows  older  different  things 
appeal  to  him.  Even  the  instincts  and  impulses  change 
with  age,  as  well  as  the  natural  tastes  and  interests. 

An  adequate  knowledge  of  these  elements  in  a  pupil 


12  TEACHERS'  HANDBOOK  OF 

will  enable  the  teacher  to  direct  the  pupil's  work.  With 
such  knowledge  in  possession  of  the  teacher,  there  should 
be  relatively  little  difficulty  in  giving  the  studies  an  in- 
terest that  will  secure  the  desired  application  on  the  part 
of  the  pupils.  A  teacher  cannot  make  any  study  or 
teaching  interesting  in  the  abstract — it  must  be  interest- 
ing to  a  particular  mind. 

How  can  this  be  done?  Before  answering  this  ques- 
tion let  us  ask  another:  What  is  interest?  Originally 
interest  is  the  feeling-side  of  attention.  The  more 
thoroughly  the  mind  attends  to  anything,  the  deeper 
is  that  feeling  which  we  call  interest.  But  interest  is 
something  more  than  this,  when  the  feeling  is  dissociated 
from  any  particular  act  of  attention  and  has  become 
an  attitude  of  the  mind  toward  any  thing  or  class  of 
things.  Hence  it  comes  that  interest  secondarily  may 
be  defined  as  that  attitude  of  mind  which  directs  the 
attention  in  a  particular  instance. 

Just  as  there  is  involuntary  attention,  so  there  is 
primal  interest.  This  depends  on  the  needs,  instincts, 
and  impulses  of  the  individual.  The  hungry  child  has 
an  interest  in  food..  The  cold  child  is  interested  in 
warm  clothes  and  a  warm  house. 

But  interest  may  become  remoter  or  secondary  when, 
for  example,  we  desire  to  help  the  natives  of  Darkest 
Africa  to  a  higher  life.  This  interest  may  be  pure  sym- 
pathy, but  it  may  be  also  because,  in  addition  to  the 
recognition  of  our  physical,  personal  needs,  we  have 
learned  that  our  highest,  broadest  self  includes  all  man- 
kind and  still  more. 

Then,  how  can  the  teacher  interest  pupils  in  their 
studies?  By  bririging  the  work  to  the  pupils  in  such  a 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  PRINCIPLES  13 

manner  as  to  call  out  their  self-activities  and  make 
them  feel  that  their  studies  have  some  relation  to  their 
own  personality. 

In  accordance  with  this,  it  may  be  seen  that  interest 
is  widened  as  the  pupil's  ideals  widen.  No  greater 
mistake  is  made  by  teachers  than  when  they  suppose 
that  all  schoolroom  work  must  be  pleasing  to  the  pupil. 
He  should  be  held  to  his  tasks  whether  pleasing  or  not, 
simply  because  it  is  his  duty;  and  when  once  this  thought 
takes  possession  of  him,  the  interest  will  not  be  slow  in 
coming,  even  in  work  which  in  itself  is  disagreeable. 

A  knowledge  of  the  pupils'  motives  will  enable  the 
teacher  to  govern  them  with  comparative  ease,  as  well 
as  with  intelligence.  How  can  one  be  expected  to  direct 
a  number  of  young  persons  unless  he  understand  their 
impulses,  desires,  and  tendencies? 

An  understanding  of  the  inner  nature  of  the  pupils 
enables  the  teacher  to  direct  them  better  in  their  play. 
By  this  is  not  meant  that  children's  play  should  be 
"bossed." 

Of  course  care  should  be  exercised  that  no  appeal  be 
made  to  unworthy  motives.  There  lie  in  each  child 
possibilities  of  selfishness  and  badness;  these  predisposi- 
tions should  not  be  wakened  into  activity.  In  each 
case  the  highest  motive  possible  should  be  appealed  to. 
If  a  pupil  will  not  study  for  the  sake  of  spiritual  (mental) 
development,  then  it  may  be  he  will  study  for  the  power 
it  gives  him  to  gain  wealth,  or  finally  because  it  may 
exempt  him  from  a  flogging  from  his  father. 

Two  types  of  will  that  deviate  from  the  normal  are 
frequently  found  in  the  schoolroom,  namely,  the  weak 
and  the  obstinate  wills. 


14  TEACHERS7  HANDBOOK  OF 

The 'weak  will  is  characterized  by  the  ease  with  which 
it  is  moved  to  act,  even  if  the  conduct  is  in  violation  of 
the  rules  of  the  school,  of  propriety,  or  of  society.  The 
proper  method  of  treating  this  defect  is  to  attempt  to 
deepen  and  strengthen  the  convictions  of  the  pupil, 
or  to  inculcate  strong  principles  of  conduct,  so  that  his 
reactions  may  be  dominated  by  these  as  far  as  possible. 
The  weakness  will  remain,  but  its  field  may  thus  be 
narrowed  considerably. 

The  obstinate  will  is  found  in  a  type  of  mind  having 
a  tendency  to  fall,  as  it  were,  upon  an  idea  or  into  a 
state  or  attitude  of  fixedness.  The  avenues  of  external 
influence  are  closed  to  both  threat  and  entreaty.  There- 
fore probably  only  a  strong  determination  of  the  indi- 
vidual himself  to  be  reasonable  will  change  the  obstinacy. 
This  determination  may  possibly  be  induced  by  appeals 
to  him  while  in  a  receptive  mood. 

The  will  develops  together  with  the  rest  of  the  child, 
but  especially  in  connection  with  certain  activities. 
Those  of  the  schoolroom  and  grounds  which  are  perti- 
nent are: 

1.  Attention  to  the  teacher's  words  and  to  the  recita- 

tion.    The  pupil  should  be  required  to  attend 
strictly  to  the  remarks  intended  for  him  to  hear. 

2.  Application  to  the  tasks  assigned. 

3.  Thinking,  speaking,  and  doing  the  right  and  true 

things  at  all  times. 

4.  Using  the   various  muscles  in  writing,   drawing, 

talking,  singing,  and  playing.     Manual  training 
is  especially  valuable  as  a  discipline. 
From  this  it  is  apparent  that  the  will  reaches  its 
maximum  efficiency  through  use  in  various  ways,  and 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  PRINCIPLES  15 

should  find  expression  through  the  whole  body,  notably 
the  eyes,  ears,  hands,  and  the  organs  of  speech.  There- 
fore any  system  of  education  that  neglects  to  call  into 
use  all  the  various  kinds  of  activities  is  defective. 

LITERATURE 

De  Garmo's  Interest  and  Education  (Macmillan) . 
Charters'  Methods  of  Teaching  (Row,  Peterson  &  Co.),  Chap- 
ter VIII. 


The  goal  of  volition  is  habit.  Acts  performed  re- 
peatedly tend  to  become  habitual,  and  are  executed  with 
less  consciousness  and  effort,  that  is,  somewhat  automat- 
ically. Habits  may,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  mechanized 
volitions.  The  mechanization  of  volitions  is  a  process  in 
behalf  of  mental  economy,  and  is  consequently  highly 
.  desirable. 

It  is  very  important  that  children  acquire  useful, 
noble  habits.  The  most  valuable  part  of  us  is  character, 
and  character  is  a  habit  of  willing.  Besides,  the  greater 
part  of  life's  work  is  performed  through  habitual  acts. 
In  the  forming  of  habits,  teachers  have  a  significant  part 
to  perform. 

It  would  be  impossible  even  to  point  out  the  innumer- 
able habits,  for  habits  of  various  kinds  have  been  formed 
with  respect  to  all  our  common  activities.  We  may 
note  a  few  of  the  most  important. 

The  teacher  should  insist  that  the  pupil  be  punctual 
in  attendance  and  in  the  performance  of  his  tasks. 
Punctuality  is  not  only  useful  in  its  immediate  applica- 
tions, but  is  closely  allied  with  moral  strictness. 


16  TEACHERS'  HANDBOOK  OF 

Neatness  of  dress  and  work  should  not  be  neglected. 
Closely  associated  with  neatness  is  orderliness  respecting 
the  possessions  and  work  of  the  pupil. 

From  the  beginning  the  teacher  should  insist  on  real, 
genuine  work,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  pupil. 
Much  harm  is  done  by  employing  in  the  schoolroom 
methods  that  require  no  industry,  no  application,  on 
the  part  of  the  child.  The  way  that  a  pupil  learns  to 
study  and  work,  is  through  applying  himself  to  his  task. 

Truthfulness  is  an  important  habit  acquired,  like 
other  habits,  by  the  exercise  of  accuracy  in  all  matters. 
This  does  not  mean  that  the  child  should  be  prohibited 
from  employing  properly  his  imagination  during  that 
period  of  his  development  when  the  imagination  is  at 
its  height  and  he  delights  to  employ  it  in  a  playful  manner. 
Exaggerations  should  be  discouraged  and  appreciation 
expressed  for  accurate  accounts. 

Honesty  is  a  virtue  that  can  be  exercised  in  respect 
to  all  dealings.  Honest  work,  and  honest  admission 
of  any  failure  in  this  work,  is  to  be  encouraged  at  all 
times.  Cheating  of  all  kinds  should  meet  with  thorough 
disapproval.  Pupils  should  be  informed  of  the  true 
nature  of  plagiarism. 

True  politeness  cannot  be  assumed,  cannot  be  put 
off  and  on  at  will,  but  must  be  cultivated  early  in  life. 
It  is  not  so  much  a  specific  habit  for  certain  definite  acts 
as  a  habitual  attitude  of  the  mind,  reinforced  here  and 
there  by  conventionalities  expressive  of  the  inner  atti- 
tude. 

One  of  the  most  important  habits  for  the  young  to 
acquire  is  obedience.  As  the  child's  experiences  and 
judgment  are  inadequate  and  immature,  a  superior  will 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  PRINCIPLES  17 

must  dominate  his  life  and  conduct.  Hence  he  must 
learn  to  obey.  The  first  duty  of  the  child  in  the  school 
is  obedience  to  the  teacher. 

Strict  attention  should  become  a  habit  as  early  as 
possible,  both  because  it  is  essential  to  the  purposes  of 
the  school  and  because  of  the  mental  development  that 
it  signifies. 

LITERATURE 

Sheldon's  Study  of  Habits  (W.  M.  Welch  &  Company). 
Shearer's  Morals  and  Manners  (Macmillan). 
Everett's  Ethics  for  Young  People  (Ginn). 
Howe's  Habit  Formation  (Longmans). 


VI 

The  child,  in  the  light  of  heredity,  is  a  marvelous  being. 
There  is  written  into  his  delicate  and  still  undeveloped 
organism  the  history  of  the  race.  In  a  sense  he  will  live 
over  again  the  life  of  his  remotest  as  well  as  nearest 
ancestors.  Into  his  being  are  stamped  tendencies  and 
instincts,  which  sooner  or  later  will  find  expression. 

To  understand  the  child  thoroughly,  therefore,  we 
ought  to  know  the  feelings,  tendencies,  instincts,  and 
mastering  motives  of  the  race.  The  child  possesses 
these  in  a  rudimentary  way,  and  gradually  he  is  coming 
into  full  possession  of  them.  Unless  the  teacher  under- 
stands adult  human  nature,  he  will  certainly  fail  to 
recognize  and  understand  the  premonitory  stirrings  in 
the  mind  and  heart  of  the  child. 

In  some  instances  it  ought  to  be  a  help  in  under- 
standing the  child,  for  the  teacher  to  know  the  parents 
2 


18  TEACHERS'  HANDBOOK  OF 

and  other  relatives,  especially  if  strong  characteristics 
prevail  in  the  family.  There  are  some  things  in  the  child 
that  are  understood  only  in  the  light  of  their  final  out- 
come. And  what  the  outcome  will  be  may  be  judged 
from  his  ancestors. 

Some  of  the  things  which  heredity  has,  in  a  measure, 
fixed  quite  definitely  are  ability  and  strength  of  mind, 
temperament,  and  tendencies  and  instincts. 

Though  there  are  notable  exceptions,  as  a  rule  the 
teacher  should  not  look  for  mental  endowments,  when 
fully  developed,  above  or  below,  that  of  the  family  of 
which  the  pupil  is  a  member.  Likewise  the  tempera- 
ment, tendencies,  and  instincts  of  a  pupil  will  be  those 
of  his  parents. 

LITERATURE 
Bryan's  Basis  of  Practical  Teaching  (Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.), 

Chapter  II  "  Our  Inheritance." 
Salisbury's   The  Theory  of  Teaching  (Row,   Peterson  &  Co.), 

Chapter  XXXII,  "  Heredity  and  Environment." 

VII 

Impulses  and  instincts,  which  constitute  an  important 
part  of  one's  inheritance,  must  be  well  understood,  if  the 
teacher  is  to  make  practical  use  of  such  knowledge  in 
teaching  and  training  the  young.  In  a  sense  it  may  be 
held  that  what  the  life  of  an  individual  shall  be,  depends 
on  his  impulses  and  instincts.  But  training  and  educa- 
tion are  significant  modifying  factors,  as  pointed  out  in 
Chapter  V.  It  may  be  enunciated  as  a  principle  that 
impulse-reactions  and  instinct-reactions  may  be  checked 
or  repressed,  thus  weakening  if  not  obliterating  them,  or 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  PRINCIPLES  19 

they  may  be  called  into  greater  activity.  It  is  this  that 
furnishes  an  escape  from  the  rigorous  dominance  of  in- 
herited qualities  and  hopeless  fatalism.  Teachers  arid 
parents  may  indeed  be  factors  in  shaping  the  destiny  of 
the  child. 

In  order  to  make  proper  use  of  this  principle,  the 
teacher,  of  course,  should  be  familiar  with  the  common 
human  instincts  and  tendencies  and  know  their  meaning. 
Although  the  larger  portion  of  impulses  and  instincts 
may  be  regarded  as  good  and  beneficial,  yet  there  are 
some  which  are  evil.  The  very  fact  that  an  instinct  or 
impulse  is  found  in  a  child,  should  speak  for  its  utility. 
Nevertheless  there  are  impulses  and  instincts  that  plainly 
do  not  now  serve  the  best  interests  of  the  race. 

Naturally  it  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  check  all 
improper  impulses  and  instincts,  and  so  direct  those 
that  are  a  necessary  part  of  human  life  that  they  may 
not  be  misapplied  or  abused;  or  in  case  they  belong  to  a 
later  part  of  life,  that  they  be  not  wakened  too  early. 

The  instinct  to  play  is  very  strong  and  very  important 
in  children.  They  must  play  according  to  the  require- 
ment of  their  nature.  But  children  must  also  be  taught 
to  work  according  to  the  requirements  of  society. 

Play  has  been  found  to  be  an  efficient  means  of  in- 
struction and  training;  also  a  means  of  pleasantly 
getting  from  play  to  work.  However  teachers  should 
remember  that  play  is  play,  and  work  is  work,  and  that  a 
child  generally  knows  whether  he  is  playing  or  working. 

Inquisitiveness,  the  desire  to  know,  should  be  care- 
fully cultivated  in  the  child.  It  is  a  great  mistake  to 
scold  a  child  for  asking  questions.  His  desire  to  know 
should  be  satisfied  as  much  as  possible.  Of  course  by 


20  TEACHERS'  HANDBOOK  OF 

this  we  do  not  mean  that  he  should  be  given  information 
beyond  his  comprehension  or  not  proper  for  his  age. 

The  doctrine  of  interest — namely,  that  a  teacher 
should  make  his  teaching  interesting — means,  from  one 
point  of  view,  that  pupils  should  be  so  directed  in  their 
work  that  they  will  want  to  know. 

Imitation  is  an  instinct  that  finds  extensive  applica- 
tion in  the  school.  Children  naturally  imitate  their 
teacher  and  one  another.  A  teacher's  value  is  not  merely 
in  what  he  teaches,  but  in  what  he  is.-  His  speech, 
manners,  and  spirit  will  find  expression  in  the  pupils. 

The  social  instinct  finds  considerable  satisfaction  in 
the  life  of  the  school.  Inquiry,  on  my  part,  among 
children  in  rural  districts,  brought  out  the  fact  that  they 
prefer  going  to  school  to  remaining  at  home. 

The  behavior  of  pupils  one  to  another  and  to  the 
teacher,  of  course,  should  be  suited  to  a  harmonious 
interrelationship.  The  natural  penalty  for  any  behavior 
violating  the  social  harmony  of  the  school  is  to  deny  to 
the  offender  the  social  life  and  privileges  of  the  school 
to  a  certain  extent. 

The  ethical  instinct  requires  careful  attention.  It 
is  best  awakened  and  cultivated  through  example  and 
life;  as  well  as  through  stories.  The  teacher  himself 
should  ring  true  in  all  things.  Violations  of  ethical 
principles  by  any  member  of  the  school  should  be  made 
the  occasion  of  a  practical  lesson  in  morals,  wherein  the 
teacher  points  out  the  nature  of  the  offense  and  fixes 
the  punishment.  On  the  other  hand,  acts  of  courage, 
kindness,  generosity,  unselfishness,  and  truthfulness 
should  receive  the  approbation  of  the  teacher. 

The  religious  instinct  is  a  fruitful  source  of  right  living 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  PRINCIPLES  21 

and  conduct.  Recent  statistics  show  that  in  very  many 
persons  religious  conviction  concerning  the  presence 
of  God  springs  directly  from  the  inner  nature  of  their 
being.  In  most  instances,  suggestions  suffice  to  awaken 
the  religious  feeling.  The  teacher  need  not  attempt  to 
teach  religion  in  the  public  school.  He  can  show  a  rever- 
ence for  truth  and  nature,  and  for  religious  expressions 
and  institutions.  Opening  exercises  in  advanced  schools 
should,  as  a  rule,  be  of  a  religious  (not  theological) 
character. 

LITERATURE 

Johnson's  Education  by  Plays  (Ginn). 
White's  School  Management  (American  Book  Co.),  pp.  218-309, 

" Moral  Instruction." 
Pratt's  The  Psychology  of  Religious  Belief  (Macmillan). 


VIII 

Feelings  are  involuntary  discharges.  They  are 
valuable  not  only  for  their  tendency  to  impel  action 
but  also  on  their  own  account.  This  means,  in  the  first 
place,  that  to  deal  successfully  with  a  child  in  the  school, 
the  teacher  must  understand  his  emotional  nature,  as  has 
already  been  pointed  out  in  the  chapter  on  the  will;  in 
the  second  place,  that  the  education  of  the  child  lies 
partly  in  the  development  of  his  emotional  nature. 

The  feelings  of  immature  persons  are  not  those  of  the 
fully  developed.  The  earliest  feelings  are  of  a  sensuous 
and  egoistic  character.  The  stunted  life  does  not  get 
far  beyond  these.  In  order  to  bring  the  child  to  his 
greater  heritage  and  highest  emotional  development,  two 
methods  of  education  must  be  employed. 


22  TEACHERS7  HANDBOOK  OF 

The  main  method  is  that  of  stimulating  or  emphasizing 
the  activities  tending  to  call  forth  the  higher  feelings 
and  sentiments.  For  example,  to  awaken  and  develop 
the  aesthetic  feelings,  there  should  be  presented  objects, 
scenes,  and  considerations  tending  to  call  up  a  feeling 
of  the  beautiful.  An  appreciation  of  the  beauties  in 
nature  does  not  usually  arise  spontaneously,  but  is  a 
result  of  education,  that  is,  frequent  attention  to  the 
natural  environments  and  notice  of  their  beauties.  The 
beauties  of  literature,  music,  and  art  are  generally 
appreciated  only  after  years  of  familiarity.  The  moral 
and  religious  sentiments  are  developed  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  moral  and  religious  instincts,  mentioned  in 
the  last  chapter.  In  this  direction  the  teacher  has  great 
opportunities  to  enlarge  the  inner,  emotional  wealth  of 
the  pupil,  and  to  help  him  to  establish  habits  of  proper 
emotional  response  to  all  kinds  of  stimuli  (objects, 
thoughts,  situations). 

We  must,  of  course,  remember  that  feelings,  senti- 
ments, should  not  be  cherished  for  their  own  sake,  but 
should  always  be  kept  subordinate  to  their  occasion, 
lest  mawkish  sentimentality  result. 

A  second  but  subordinate  method  in  the  development 
of  a  proper  emotional  life,  is  that  of  repressing  the  lower 
feelings.  For  example,  fear  is  one  of  the  most  prominent 
emotions  during  childhood.  If  the  child  is  frequently 
frightened  by  stories  and  situations,  fear  may  almost 
usurp  the  rightful  mental  life.  And,  on  the  other  hand, 
if  he  is  continually  made  to  feel  that  he  is  safe  from 
unseen  powers  or  beings,  he  will  hardly  know  what  fear 
is.  All  selfish  feelings  are  to  be  checked,  as  well  as  others 
that  should  give  away  to  nobler  sentiments.  Anger 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  PRINCIPLES  23 

should  be  repressed  for  patience,  and  malevolence  for 
love. 

What  is  the  rightful  domain  of  some  of  the  more 
primitive,  lower  feelings,  is  a  matter  for  practical  ethics 
to  decide.  There  are  times  when  want  of  fear  is  folly, 
and  patience  ceases  to  be  a  virtue. 

In  general  the  development  of  the  emotional  nature 
of  man  is  closely  associated  with  intellectual  training. 
Our  feelings  and  sentiments  are  modified  continually 
by  our  ideas. 

Inasmuch  as  feelings  have  an  impelling  force,  children 
should  early  be  impressed  with  the  necessity  of  letting 
reason  and  not  passion  determine  their  conduct. 

The  studies  that  especially  appeal  to  the  emotions  are 
literature  and  art. 

LITERATURE 

Dexter  and  Garlick's  Psychology  in  the  Schoolroom  (Longmans), 
Chapters  XV-XX. 

IX 

Education  through  the  senses  has  progressed  far 
before  the  child  enters  even  the  kindergarten.  This 
form  of  education  is,  for  the  most  part,  spontaneous, 
being  largely  directed  by  the  child's  inherent  tendencies 
and  impulses.  Yet  when  the  child  is  brought  to  school, 
the  teacher  must  do  some  directing  in  order  to  assist 
nature. 

Sensations  are  called  the  elements  of  knowledge. 
Before  the  objective  world  can  be  known  or  have  any 
meaning,  the  mind  must  have  a  great  number  and 
variety  of  sensations.  Hence  the  first  few  years  of  life 


24  TEACHERS'  HANDBOOK  OF 

are  given  largely  to  the  obtaining  of  sense-impressions 
of  all  kinds.  And  when  finally  the  child  is  mature  enough 
to  attend  school,  it  is  the  teacher's  part  to  assist  him  in 
getting  other  of  these  sense-impressions,  and  getting  them 
with  some  discrimination  and  with  certain  appropriate 
motor  accommodations,  as  stated  in  Chapter  IV.  Modern 
methods  of  primary  instruction  include  the  training  of 
the  senses  as  well  as  the  training  of  hands  and  feet.  The 
activities  of  the  pupil  are  grouped  about  objects  seen, 
heard,  touched,  handled,  smelled,  and  tasted. 

The  advantages  of  the  objective  method  of  instruction, 
even  beyond  primary  grades,  are  obvious : 

1.  It  gives  the  pupil  definite  and  vivid  sense-impres- 

sions. 

2.  The  impressions  are  direct  and  original. 

3.  The  impressions  are  more  permanent  and  complete. 
A  prolonged  employment  of  this  method  has  serious 

disadvantages,  in  that  (1)  it  makes  the  pupil  too  de- 
pendent on  sense-impressions  for  gaining  new  knowledge, 
and  (2)  it  retards  the  development  of  general  ideas. 

LITERATURE 

Harrison's  A   Study  of  Child  Nature   (Chicago   Kindergarten 
College). 


The  fact  that  things  are  first  known  as  wholes  is  the 
reason  a  teacher,  in  giving  instruction  about  things, 
should  present  them  first  in  their  entirety.  The  atten- 
tion demands,  as  it  were,  a  complete  thing  to  start  with. 
Analysis  follows  as  a  natural  and  easy  step.  If  a  teacher 
were  to  begin  with  the  constituent  parts  of  an  object, 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  PRINCIPLES  25 

without  giving  the  pupils  any  intimation  of  the  object 
itself,  they  would  be  kept  in  a  state  of  uncertainty  and 
possibly  of  confusion,  until  they  found  out  what  all  was 
about.  Teaching  by  psychological  principle  begins  with 
the  object,  and  then  proceeds  to  detailed  analysis. 

Discrimination  in  the  young  can  become  extensive 
and  accurate  only  through  considerable  training. 

The  chief  senses  in  which  discrimination  may  be 
employed  in  connection  with  school-work  are  sight  and 
hearing. 

The  pupil  has  exercise  in  discrimination  in  distinguish- 
ing: 

1.  Differences  in  letters  of  the  alphabet  and  in  the 

appearance  of  words  almost  alike  (discrimination 
in  reading). 

2.  Different  colors  and  shades   thereof  (water-color 

work). 

3.  Differences  in  form  or  outline  (drawing,  map- work, 

nature  study,  manual  constructive  work) . 

4.  Parts  in  objects  (natural  science,  such  as  botany, 

biology,  zoology). 

5.  Different    sounds    (singing,    instrumental     music, 

sounds  of  words,  inflections  of  words). 

That  the  young  need  considerable  training  in  dis- 
crimination is  apparent  on  every  hand.  The  teacher 
may  prove  this  to  himself  by  asking  a  -class  of  young 
pupils  to  draw  some  unfamiliar  object,  and  noting  the 
results. 

Inaccurate  observation  probably  means  failure  to  dis- 
criminate. 

LITERATURE 
Morgan's  Psychology  for  Teachers  (Scribners),  Chapter  V. 


26  TEACHERS7  HANDBOOK  OF 

XI 

Since  most  of  the  processes  involved  in  perception 
are  involuntary,  there  seems  to  be  little  that  the  teacher 
can  do  in  this  direction  to  be  of  service  to  the  pupil. 
There  are  several  things,  however,  that  a  teacher  should 
keep  in  mind  regarding  perception. 

1.  Perception,  as  observation,  may  be  cultivated  to  a 
considerable  extent,  especially  in  certain  lines.     How 
very  much  more  does  the  biologist  or  botanist  see  in  a 
little  animal  or  plant  than  the  untrained  person!    And 
an  experienced  hunter  roaming  through  the  woods  or 
fields  perceives  quite  different  points  from  those  noticed 
by  the  scientist  and  artist.    In  fact  there  are  many  people 
who  fail  to  perceive  even  the  more  palpable  points  and 
qualities  in  their  surroundings. 

This  difference  of  perceptions  in  individuals  is  in  part 
due  to  mental  character,  but  mostly  to  differences  in 
mental  habit — differences  in  attention.  Observation, 
its  extent  and  kind,  is  largely  a  matter  of  habit.  In  the 
formation  of  this  habit  the  teacher  may  have  an  impor- 
tant part  to  perform.  There  are  various  studies  and 
forms  of  work  in  which  the  teacher  can  require  extensive 
observation  on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  One  of  the  prime 
functions  of  the  school  should  be  to  teach  the  pupil  to 
see  his  environment  fully  and  minutely. 

2.  Perception  may  be  trained  to  be  accurate.    Accu- 
rate perception  is  observation  applied  to  details.     It 
implies  discrimination  also.     In  spite  of  training  and 
care,  illusory  perceptions  may  arise.    Different  persons 
perceive  the  world  differently.    Casual  perception  cannot 
be  relied  on  as  absolutely  trustworthy. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  PRINCIPLES  27 

3.  Perception  may  be  trained  to  be  quick.     Quick 
perception  means  skill  in  perception,  which  is  acquired 
alone  through  attentive  observation — in  other  words,  . 
through  practice. 

LITERATURE 

Dexter  and  Garlick's  Psychology  in  the  Schoolroom  (Longmans), 
Chapter  VI. 

XII 

As  a  rule,  teachers  have  to  deal  with  normally  con- 
stituted children  and  young  people.  Occasionally  a 
child  deficient  in  intellect  is  sent  to  school,  and  sometimes 
an  exceptionally  bright  child  is  found.  It  probably  will 
never  happen  that  a  teacher  will  find  a  pupil  possessing 
such  a  power  as  telepathy  (assuming  the  existence  of 
such  a  power) .  Therefore  the  teacher  may  safely  omit 
a  study  of  exceptional  phenomena  as  unessential  to  his 
qualifications,  until  he  is  brought  face  to  face  with  a 
situation  making  it  profitable  to  study  this  special 
subject. 

XIII 

No  teacher,  however  superficially  prepared  for  his 
work,  is  unaware  of  the  fact  that  memory  must  be 
employed  by  the  pupils.  In  spite  of  all  that  has  been 
said  in  disparagement  of  memory  in  education,  there  is 
yet  a  large  field  for  its  exercise  in  the  schoolroom.  The 
foundations  of  learning  are  purely  matters  of  memory. 
The  child  must  remember  the  alphabet.  He  must 
remember  sounds  and  words  and  their  meaning.  The 
multiplication  table  is  memorized.  The  facts  of  history 


28  TEACHERS'  HANDBOOK  OF 

and  of  geography  are  to  be  remembered,  and  so  on 
through  the  list.  In  fact,  the  very  integrity  of  our  per- 
sonality is  dependent  on  memory. 

For  the  teacher  the  matter  of  memory  presents  itself 
in  a  twofold  aspect : 

1.  How  are  facts  to  be  presented  so  as  to  be  remem- 

bered by  the  pupil? 

2.  What  are  the  conditions  for  readiest  reproduction? 
Regarding  the  first  question,  it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind 

that  the  first  step  in  memory  is  getting  an  impression. 
That  which  is  to  be  remembered  must  first  of  all  be  at- 
tended to.  Vivid,  strong  impressions  are  usually  retained 
and  easily  reproduced.  On  the  other  hand,  to  the  extent 
that  attention  is  lacking,  the  impression  is  likely  to  be 
faint.  Therefore  the  teacher  should  aim  to  secure  from 
the  pupils  strict  attention  to  the  matter  to  be  remem- 
bered. 

Furthermore,  impressions  are  made  through  various 
senses,  and  the  more  numerous  the  impressions  about 
anything,  the  better  is  the  retention.  Let  us  suppose 
the  pupil  is  to  learn  a  new  name.  If  the  name  is  only 
pronounced,  he  may  not  remember;  but  if  in  addition  he 
is  made  to  write  it  and  then  to  see  the  word  written  or 
printed,  the  impression  is  a  threefold  one  and  the  chances 
for  remembering  it  are  much  better. 

As  to  the  value  of  the  different  kinds  of  impressions 
in  memory,  different  persons  vary.  One  remembers 
best  through  sound,  another  through  sight,  and  a  third 
through  motor  impressions.  The  most  thorough  im- 
pression possible  of  a  thing  is  one  obtained  through  all 
the  avenues  possible.  Likewise  repetition  of  the  same 
impression  fixes  it  more  permanently  for  memory. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  PRINCIPLES  29 

To  repeat:  the  teacher  should  have  the  pupil  attend 
strictly  to  .the  matter  to  be  remembered;  he  should  have 
the  impressions  made  in  as  many  different  kinds  of 
sensations  as  possible;  and  he  should  emphasize  the 
necessity  of  repeating  the  impressions.  This  means 
also  that  the  teacher  is  to  demand  close  attention  to  his 
instruction  and  directions;  that  his  instruction  shall  call 
into  activity  various  senses  and  powers;  and  that  he 
shall  hold  frequent  reviews  of  work  done. 

Regarding  the  second  question,  it  is  to  be  noted  that 
after  impressions  have  been  made,  the  reproduction  of 
them  follows  the  law  of  association.  The  mind  yields 
to  consciousness  a  past  impression,  only  when  elements 
formerly  associated  with  that  impression  are  present. 
If  the  mind  is  conscious  of  what  is  wanted,  it  may  dwell 
upon  certain  ideas  that  give  promise  of  bringing  forth 
the  desired  memories.  Distracting  elements,  of  course, 
do  not  favor  a  recall  of  the  required  impression. 

But  after  all,  the  yielding  up  of  the  impressions  as  a 
memory  depends  on  that  which  retains  impressions,  and 
that  is  the  brain-cells.  Just  as  it  is  essential  for  retention 
that  the  brain-cells  be  in  good  condition,  so  if  recall  is 
to  be  ready  and  accurate,  the  brain  must  be  fresh  and 
sound. 

The  training  of  memory  means  acquiring  the  habit  of 
attention,  and  making  associations.  The  emphasis  of 
the  teacher  should  be  placed  on  proper  care  of  the  health, 
and  the  acquisition  of  habit  relating  to  memory. 

LITERATURE 

McMurry's  How  to  Study  and  Teaching  How  to  Study  (Hough- 
ton  Mifflin  Co.),  Chapter  VII. 


30  TEACHERS'  HANDBOOK  OF 

XIV 

The  ability  to  remember  in  terms  of  definite  sensa- 
tions and  to  think  these  together  in  various  combina- 
tions, is  imagination.  Imagination  is  a  form  of  memory. 

Aside  from  its  memorial  value,  imagination  is  a  source 
of  great  pleasure,  and  may  be  employed  in  school  to 
awaken  and  sustain  interest  in  the  work.  There  is  hardly 
a  school  in  this  country  that  has  not  a  little  library  of 
its  own,  in  which  are  found  books,  notably  story-books, 
which  fascinate  the  child-mind  with  their  varied  imagery. 

The  earlier  years  of  school-life  are  devoted  to  concrete, 
definite  things  rather  than  to  abstractions;  and  the  def- 
inite, concrete  thing  is  pictured  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil 
while  he  is  occupied  with  it.  The  proficiency  and  ac- 
curacy of  a  pupil  is  dependent  on  his  ability  to  carry 
distinct  images  in  his  mind. 

Constructive  imagination  is  used  and  developed  in 
the  following  schoolroom  employments : 

1.  Drawing  and  writing,  especially  the  first. 

2.  Composition  work. 

3.  Designing  and  modeling  and  manual  training  work. 

4.  Geometry  and  other  studies  in  which  original  work 

is  required. 

The  imagination  is  prominent  in  the  play  of  children, 
and  the  more  it  is  employed  the  more  enjoyable  the 
plaything  or  the  game.  Hence  toys  should  not  be 
elaborate  and  finished  in  detail.  The  crude  hobby-horse 
is  a  far  better  toy  than  the  rocking-horse  with  hide  and 
hair.  In  fact,  as  a  rule,  the  playthings  constructed  by 
the  child  himself  are  superior,  in  their  fitness  to  yield 
pleasure,  to  those  bought  in  the  toy-shop.  It  is  a  bad 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  PRINCIPLES  31 

kindness  for  parents  so  to  stock  the  nursery  with  play- 
things as  to  leave  nothing  for  the  child  to  construct  in 
imagination  and  in  material  form. 

LITERATURE 

Halleck's  Psychology  and  Psychic  Culture  (American  Book  Co.), 
Chapter  VII. 

XV 

Evidently  the  school  is,  above  all  else,  the  place  for 
arousing  ideas  in  the  young. 

The  methods  by  which  this  is  accomplished  are  two: 
the  one  by  showing  the  pupil  actual  things  and  relations, 
and  the  other  by  teaching  him  words  and  their  meaning. 
For  example,  the  teacher  may  demonstrate  in  the 
laboratory  the  action  of  liquids  in  relation  to  small 
tubes,  and  the  pupils  will  get  the  concept  of  capillarity. 
Or  the  word  honest  may  be  presented  and  then  its  mean- 
ing explained.  The  concept,  or  idea,  may  at  first  be  of 
limited  application  or  indefinite  as  to  meaning;  but  it' 
becomes  broad  and  clear  through  many  experiences. 
Capillarity  acts  not  only  in  the  glass  tubes  in  the  labora- 
tory, but  also  in  the  tree  in  which  the  sap  goes  up  to  the 
highest  extremities;  in  a  lump  of  sugar  that  is  soon  filled 
with  coffee  when  one  end  is  touched  to  the  liquid;  in 
the  blotter  that  absorbs  the  ink;  in  the  wick  that  brings 
the  oil  up;  and  in  the  ground  that  remains  moist  at  the 
surface  until  the  moisture  deep  down  is  exhausted. 
Thus,  too,  honest  is  the  person  who  does  not  take  what 
belongs  to  another,  who  pays  his  debts,  who  tells  the 
truth,  admits  what  is  just,  thinks  what  is  right,  claims 
no  praise  or  esteem  except  for  actual  merit  or  service. 


32  TEACHERS7  HANDBOOK  OF 

In  well  equipped,  modern  schools  the  pupils  have 
ample  opportunity  to  form  concepts  from  things  seen 
and  handled.  Description  may  take  the  place  of  objects. 
Yet  the  manner  of  getting  concepts  matters  not,  provided 
the  pupil  gets  them  and  gets  them  clearly  and  accu- 
rately. 

In  teaching,  of  course,  language  is  very  prominent. 
No  effort  should  be  spared  to  have  the  pupils  get  the 
meaning  of  words.  Opportunity  for  such  instruction 
is  found  in  every  study  in  the  school. 

It  is  important  that  the  teacher  have  a  fairly  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  child's  stock  of  ideas.  It  is  wearisome 
to  the  pupil,  as  well  as  a  waste  of  time,  to  explain  what 
is  already  clearly  understood  by  him.  Still  more  fatal 
is  it  to  pass  over  ground  that  is  not  mastered  and  under- 
stood. Therefore  the  teacher  must  be  ever  awake  to  the 
stock  of  concepts  in  each  pupil. 

LITERATURE 

.Kratz's  Studies  and  Observations  in  the  Schoolroom  (Educational 
Publishing  Co.),  Chapter  III,  "Children's  Knowledge  When 
Entering  School." 

XVI 

The  ability  and  habit  to  think  well  and  persistently 
are  certainly  not  characteristics  of  the  untutored  mind. 
It  is  one  of  the  great  functions  of  the  school  to  teach 
the  young  to  think.  Teachers  of  to-day  may  say  as  of  old 
Demosthenes  said:  "In  the  name  of  the  gods,  I  beg  you 
to  think."  The  modern  school  rightly  holds  the  pupil 
to  tasks  of  reflective  and  constructive  mental  activity. 

The  essential  thing  in  thinking  is  the  establishment 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  PRINCIPLES  33 

of  relations,  which  includes  the  concept  and  is  in  reality 
the  enlargement  and  enrichment  of  it. 

During  the  first  years  of  school-life  the  thought- 
processes  required  of  the  child  should  be  very  simple  and 
natural.  It  would  be  almost  as  serious  a  mistake  to  force 
reasoning  in  a  child  of  the  lower  grades  as  it  would  be  to 
omit  reasoning  in  the  upper  grades.  Gradually  the 
requirements  in  reasoning  should  be  increased. 

Reasoning  by  the  pupil  may  be  carried  on  in  nearly 
all  studies  of  the  upper  grades,  high  school,  and  college. 
Mathematics,  especially  geometry,  is  a  science  of  reason- 
ing. The  natural  sciences  afford  excellent  opportunities 
to  think  from  cause  to  effect,  and  vice  versa.  Logic, 
as  a  science,  affords  good  training  in  valid  thought- 
processes. 

In  training  the  pupils  to  think,  the  teacher  should 
bear  in  mind  the  following  considerations. 

1.  The  formation  of  concepts,  or  ideas,  is  based  upon 
particular  observations.    The  young  mind  should  ever 
be  brought  face  to  face  with  new  experiences.    Concepts 
should  become  as  clear  and  distinct  as  possible.    Much 
loose  and  faulty  thinking  is  due  to  muddled  ideas. 

2.  The   enlargement   of   the   import   of   concepts   is 
attained  by  additional  observation.    In  this  the  mind  of 
the  pupil  must  see  the  relation  of  the  new  material  to 
the  old.     This  is  conception.     Sometimes  it  may  be 
styled  induction.    The  pupil  should  be  directed  in  this 
so  that  his  concepts  may  widen  and  expand.    This  is  a 
process  of  generalization.     Hasty  generalization  is   a 
propensity  of  the  immature,  and  they  should  be  cau- 
tioned against  "  jumping  to  conclusions. " 

3.  The  recognition  of  certain  things  as  being  particular 
3 


34  TEACHERS7  HANDBOOK  OF 

cases  of  a  general  fact,  truth,  or  proposition  may  come 
immediately  or  it  may  come  by  mediation.  This  media- 
tion is  called  reasoning. 

4.  There  is  a  sequence  of  events,  a  cause  and  effect. 
Everything  has  a  necessary  history,  so  to  speak.     The 
pupil  should  be  so  directed  that  he  will  acquire  a  habit 
of  thinking  of  events,  of  conditions,  and  of  things  as 
being  preceded  by  another  condition  or  event  which 
accounts  for  the  present  one. 

5.  The   young  are  more  largely  mystical,   and  get 
more  intuitive  impressions  than  older  persons.     This  is 
no  matter  for  regret;  but  the  education  of  the  thinking 
power  and  habit  should  not  be  neglected,  so  that  clear 
consciousness  may  characterize  thought. 

LITERATURE 

McMurry's  How  to  Study  and  Teaching  How  to  Study  (Hough- 
ton  Mifflin  Co.),  Chapter  V. 


XVII 

As  all  things  knowable  are  related,  so  all  knowledge 
itself  is  a  perception  of  relation.  This  being  the  case, 
instruction  must  be  systematic  and  adapted  to  the 
mind  of  the  pupil,  as  was  pointed  out  in  the  discussion 
of  Conception.  New  facts,  in  order  to  be  understood, 
must  contain  a  feature  that  is  familiar  to  the  pupil. 
That  is,  the  new  must  be  perceived  in  addition  to  the 
old — it  must  be  apperceived.  For  example,  if  the  child 
is  to  understand  what  an  aeroplane  is,  he  may  be  told 
that  it  is  a  flying  machine.  That  birds  fly  he  already 
knows.  He  also  knows  what  a  machine  is,  for  there  is 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  PRINCIPLES  35 

the  sewing  machine,  the  washing  machine,  etc.  To 
inform  the  pupil  that  an  aeroplane  is  a  machine  that  will 
fly,  is  unintelligible  unless  he  understands  what  flying 
and  a  machine  are.  •  ; 

Knowledge  is  obtained  inductively  and  deductively; 
or  stated  otherwise,  knowledge  comes  by  a  perception 
of  particular  cases  and  by  instruction  as  to  conclusions 
reached  by  others. 

Children  should  become  familiar  with  the  inductive 
process  of  attaining  knowledge.  At  frequent  points  the 
teacher  should  show  to  the  pupil  how  certain  conclusions 
were  reached;  how  it  required  long,  painstaking,  exten- 
sive observation  of  particulars;  how  conclusions  reached 
very  often  require  revision  because  additional  facts 
come  to  light.  In  fact,  pupils  should  be  required — for 
the  sake  of  acquiring  the  method — to  carry  on  a  certain 
amount  of  inductive  study,  especially  in  high  school 
and  college. 

Although  every  educated  person  should  be  familiar 
with  the  inductive  method,  since  such  familiarity  helps 
him  to  appreciate  conclusions  properly  reached  and  to 
make  light  of  those  without  adequate  foundation,  we 
should  not  forget  that  after  all  the  teacher  must  instruct 
without  going  over  again  the  long,  weary  road  of  original 
discovery.  Much  that  a  young  person  has  to  know 
must  be  accepted  as  fact  with  foundation. 

The  inductive  method  of  studying  has  some  decided 
advantages.  Aside  from  making  the  pupil  familiar 
with  inductive  reasoning,  it  has  the  added  merit  of 
bringing  a  certain  freshness  to  the  conclusions.  Further- 
more, what  is  thus  learned  is  understood. 

We  must,  however,  remember  that  induction  is  reason- 


36  TEACHERS'  HANDBOOK  OF 

ing,  and  reasoning  is  not  a  marked  trait  of  pupils  under 
fourteen  or  fifteen  years  of  age.  Induction  has  been  called 
the  natural  method,  but  in  the  grades  the  really  natural 
method  of  instruction  gives  the  facts  or  conclusions. 

Hence  the  inductive,  "natural"  method  of  studying 
in  the  elementary  schools  is  a  waste  of  time  from  the 
standpoint  of  imparting  knowledge.  For  example,  it 
will  serve  the  purpose  quite  as  well  to  inform  the  pupil 
that  there  are  eight  parts  of  speech,  as  to  set  the  pupil 
to  work  to  discover  that  fact  himself;  or  to  state  that 
Columbus  discovered  America  in  1492,  as  to  make  the 
pupil  investigate  original  documents,  traditions,  and 
facts  tending  to  establish  the  same  truth;  or  to  announce 
the  law  of  gravity,  as  wearily  to  scan  the  heavens  and 
wearily  to  retrace  the  calculations  of  Newton. 

LITERATURE 
Swift's  Mind  in  the  Making  (Scribners),  Chapter  VI. 


xvm 

Suggestion  in  various  forms  is  a  factor  in  the  school. 
An  orderly,  clean,  well  appointed,  dignified  room  calls 
forth  respect  in  the  pupils.  A  room  with  dirty  floor, 
scratched  and  whittled  furniture,  and  broken  windows 
suggests  to  the  pupils  a  freedom  and  demeanor  that 
make  good  behavior  under  such  an  environment  almost 
impossible.  It  is  therefore  important  that  the  school- 
room should  be  so  appointed  and  kept  as  to  suggest 
quiet,  dignity,  respect,  studiousness. 

Likewise  the  morning  opening  of  a  school  may  be  such 
as  to  suggest  the  better  qualities.  A  quiet  and  studious 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  PRINCIPLES  37 

atmosphere  will  suggest  or,  we  might  almost  say,  propa- 
gate its  continuance. 

In  many  ways  the  teacher  can  guide  and  direct  a 
school  by  suggestions.  For  example,  the  mere  fact  that 
a  teacher  assumes  an  attitude  as  though  every  pupil 
would  do  his  duty,  goes  far  to  bring  about  that  condi- 
tion. The  teacher  who  assumes,  in  a  perceptible  way, 
that  the  pupils  are  honorable,  truthful,  and  manly, 
will  find  more  of  those  qualities  in  the  pupils  than  if  the 
opposite  characteristics  were  assumed. 

Since  it  is  highly  desirable  that  pupils  do  what  they 
ought  of  their  own  accord  rather  than  through  necessity, 
a  suggestion  is  far  better  than  a  command,  if  the  former 
will  suffice.  A  hint  or  a  wish  expressed  will  often  do 
more  than  a  peremptory  request.  Governing  by  sug- 
gestion not  only  accomplishes  the  end,  but  it  leaves  in 
the  pupils  a  kindly  spirit  toward  the  teacher. 

The  teacher  may  convey  suggestion  through  a  hint, 
wish,  example,  story.  In  fact  suggestion  is  almost  as 
far-reaching  as  the  association  of  ideas. 

LITERATURE 

Miinsterberg's  Psychology  and  the  Teacher  (Appleton),  Chapter 
XIX,  "Imitation  and  Suggestion." 


XIX 

The  double  task  of  the  teacher  is  to  speak  to  the  self 
of  the  pupil  as  it  is,  and  to  develop  it  to  its  highest  form. 

The  child  is  most  easily  appealed  to  through  the  phys- 
ical; and  it  is  proper  for  the  teacher  to  take  the  pupil  as 
he  is. 


38  TEACHERS'  HANDBOOK  OF 

But  the  process  of  education  should  be  from  the  ma- 
terial to  the  social  and  spiritual  selves.  Although  the 
teacher  may  hold  out  as  motives  the  ideas  of  material 
possession,  attainments,  powers,  and  enjoyment,  or 
physical  sufferings  and  material  wretchedness,  he  yet 
should  call  forth  social  and  spiritual  activities  and 
appreciations.  No  person  is  truly  educated  or  cultivated 
who  feels  no  needs  above  the  bread  he  eats,  who  puts 
no  higher  estimate  upon  ideals,  mental  attainments, 
tastes,  and  character  than  upon  material  possessions. 

The  higher  self  is  developed  chiefly  through  moral 
training.  Let  the  teacher  remember  that  moral  training 
is  a  duty  in  every  school.  The  education  that  omits 
the  moral  element  is  a  failure. 

In  the  dramatic  sundering  of  the  ego,  such  as  occurs 
when  the  child  plays  that  he  is  some  one  else,  care  should 
be  exercised  that  he  assume  no  base  role.  It  is  far  better 
that  the  child  act  and  feel  and  think  the  part  of  a  good 
person. 

XX 

If  all  pupils  had  the  same  temperament  and  ability, 
the  problems  of  the  teacher  would  be  comparatively 
simple.  As  it  is,  he  is  obliged  to  reckon  with  many  men- 
tal variations  in  his  pupils. 

One  of  the  first  psychological  lessons  that  the  teacher 
has  to  learn  is  this  variation  in  children  in  respect  to 
temperament,  development,  and  equilibrium.  No  suc- 
cessful school  management  is  possible,  and  no  superior 
teaching  can  be  done,  without  an  accurate  diagnosis 
of  each  pupil.  To  repeat  what  has  often  been  said:  the 


PSYCHOLOGICAL 


*'39 


mind  that  is  to  be  trained  and  instructed  must  be  known 
by  the  teacher.  After  this  knowledge  is  gained,  he  is 
able  to  adapt  his  instruction  and  directions  to  the  par- 
ticular mind. 

This  adaptation  must  be  not  only  in  respect  to  the 
concepts  in  possession  of  the  pupil,  but  also  in  respect 
to  his  temperament.  The  quick,  sensitive  nature  requires 
a  different  approach  from  the  blunt,  indifferent  one. 
In  the  one  case  a  mere  suggestion  may  suffice,  while  in 
the  other  a  direct,  plain,  and  often  severe  statement  is 
necessary. 

Since  mental  development  is  not  the  same  in  all 
children,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  a  pupil's 
ability  and  needs  are  not  determined  by  his  age  in  all 
instances.  Some  children  mature  more  slowly  than 
others,  but  perhaps  more  surely.  Some  do  not  develop 
quite  up  to  the  normal  mark,  while  others  exceed  the 
average  ability. 

Teachers  should  therefore  constantly  bear  in  mind 
(perhaps  subconsciously)  the  pupil's  particular  tempera- 
ment and  development,  and  —  what  is  quite  as  important 
—  discover  and  apply  the  best  methods  of  dealing  with 
any  given  pupil. 

When  pupils  differ  from  the  average  normal  to  such 
an  extent  that  it  interferes  too  much  with  the  proper 
work  of  the  school,  they  should  be  placed  in  auxiliary 
schools,  as  already  stated. 

LITERATURE 

Miinsterberg's  Psychology  and  the  Teacher  (Appleton),  Chapter 
XXII,  ''Individual  Differences.  " 


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